[Karl Note: When you look at an atom of oxygen you will often see this truly three dimensional object portrayed on a page, or screen, obviously, in only two dimensions, as the following:
When
you try to visualize this two dimensional
presentation as to its true movements, it is
difficule.
The graphic below gives you a better understanding of the movement.
When you look at the "front" of the atom, all the electrons are there to be seen. But, you realize that some of those electrons would be seen as from the "EDGE" of the picture if it were in three dimensions, and thus the second image, below, portrays this "side view."
When you finally understand electron movement, you discover that each electron actually moves in a "wave patern" as shown in the third image.
These three images are helpful in getting the true understanding of electron movement.]
Electrons moving in circular orbits at constant speed around a nucleus, which is actually an approximation of reality, are said to exhibit periodic motion. This is the same motion exhibited by a mass attached to a spring, a pendulum, or the motion of small segments of a violin string when it is bowed. To see this, let's look at our first demonstration, which compares motion about a circle to a standing wave on a string.
Note, also, that the oscillating rope appears to prefer certain types of motion at the actively moving end. More specifically, if I wiggle the end of the rope up and down just right, waves appear to stand still on the rope. If I wiggle up and down more vigorously but at just the right frequency (number of times wiggled upwards per second), one can see another, shorter standing wave on the rope. Note that the ribbon tied to the rope moves exactly as did the body around the circle, when it was viewed on edge.
It turns out the electrons in their orbits around atomic nuclei exhibit the same behavior. That is, only certain frequencies of oscillation are allowed. There is an energy level associated with each frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy. Frequency is proportional to energy:
It may not be obvious to you, but when I wiggle this rope trying to excite a higher frequency standing wave, I am certainly converting more energy in the process. All other things being equal, blue light has more (electromagnetic) energy than does red. Infrared light, which the "heat light" in your bathroom emits, has less energy than do x-rays of equal amplitude.
Atoms generally absorb and emit energy as quanta, discrete amounts of energy. How does this work? In words, atoms emit or absorb energy when one of their electrons changes state-- which means it changes to a different orbit, or otherwise changes angular momentum. For example atoms emit energy, say as light, when one of their electrons lowers its orbit. An incoming photon, or bit of light, can cause an orbiting electron to increase its orbit or its angular momentum.
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